Forests in Pakistan: Vital for Climate Stability

Pakistan remains classified as a developing economy, characterized by constrained industrial growth, fiscal instability, variable human development indicators, and governance deficits (UNDP, 2024). Alongside regional counterparts including India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Afghanistan, Pakistan continues to pursue structural reforms through bilateral and multilateral cooperation. Nevertheless, persistent challenges such as rapid demographic expansion, environmental deterioration, and suboptimal natural resource governance continue to impede progress toward sustainable development (World Bank, 2024a).

Among the most pressing environmental threats facing contemporary Pakistan is deforestation, which critically undermines ecological integrity, economic resilience, and public health outcomes. Forests serve as carbon sinks, hydrological regulators, biodiversity repositories, and livelihood foundations for millions. Their rapid depletion therefore constitutes not merely an environmental concern but a multisectoral crisis with intergenerational consequences (WWF-Pakistan, 2024).

Structural Challenges and Ecological Implications

Developing countries face interrelated structural constraints, including multidimensional poverty, underemployment, income inequality, and mounting environmental stress. In Pakistan, these pressures are intensified by rapid population growth, prolonged political instability, persistent fiscal and trade deficits, deep-rooted regional disparities, and accelerating climate-induced degradation. Together, these dynamics create a complex development environment in which economic vulnerability and ecological decline reinforce one another.

Pakistan’s demographic trajectory is particularly consequential. With an estimated population of approximately 241.5 million in 2023–2024 (PBS, 2024), the country records one of the highest fertility rates in South Asia. Projections suggest that by 2050 the population could reach nearly 403 million, positioning Pakistan as the world’s fourth most populous nation (UNDESA, 2024). This expansion imposes substantial pressure on finite natural resources, especially forests, freshwater systems, and cultivable land. Rising demand for housing, fuelwood, and agricultural expansion has accelerated deforestation, frequently through informal or illegal land conversion (GoP, MoCC, 2023).

Forest resources in Pakistan remain critically limited. Current satellite-based and national inventory estimates indicate that forest cover constitutes only 4.8–5.7 percent of total land area approximately 3.12 million hectares (FAO, 2024; MoCC, 2024). This figure falls well below the internationally recommended benchmark of 25 percent considered necessary to maintain ecological balance and climate resilience (IUCN, 2023). Net annual forest loss is estimated at 42,000–47,000 hectares, driven by illegal logging, agricultural encroachment, infrastructure development, and weak enforcement mechanisms (WWF-Pakistan, 2024).

Although forest governance was devolved to provinces following the Eighteenth Constitutional Amendment, institutional capacity varies significantly across regions, and coordination remains fragmented (Khan et al., 2024). Forest types range from coniferous stands in northern highlands to irrigated plantations, scrub forests, riverain forests along major floodplains, and extensive rangelands in arid zones. However, without strengthened governance, demographic management, and sustainable land-use planning, continued degradation threatens biodiversity, water security, and long-term climate resilience.

Environmental, Economic, and Societal Consequences of Deforestation in Pakistan

Deforestation in Pakistan imposes substantial and quantifiable economic and environmental costs, undermining ecological stability and long-term development prospects. Hydrological assessments demonstrate that forest degradation has significantly weakened watershed regulation functions, intensifying flood frequency and severity. The catastrophic floods of 2022, which submerged nearly one-third of the country, affected approximately 33 million people, caused damages estimated at US$14.9 billion, and required US$16.3 billion for recovery and reconstruction, illustrating the scale of vulnerability (GoP & World Bank, 2022; UNDP, 2023). While extreme rainfall was the immediate trigger, degraded catchments and reduced vegetative cover amplified runoff, sedimentation, and downstream destruction.

Beyond floods, deforestation accelerates soil erosion, with agricultural productivity estimated to decline by 0.5–1.2 percent annually due to nutrient depletion and land degradation (Majeed & Mumtaz, 2023). The erosion of fertile topsoil alone is valued at approximately PKR 70 billion each year (Pakistan Economic Survey, 2023–24). Sediment loads transported into major reservoirs including Tarbela, Mangla, and Chashma reduce water storage capacity and hydropower generation efficiency, compounding energy insecurity (WAPDA, 2024). Simultaneously, an estimated 30 million acre-feet of freshwater flows unused into the Arabian Sea annually, partly reflecting impaired upstream retention and groundwater recharge in degraded watersheds (PCRWR, 2024). Forest ecosystems play indispensable hydrological roles through canopy interception, enhanced infiltration, and aquifer replenishment; their removal heightens flash flooding, sedimentation, and agricultural risk, directly threatening food security (Zafar et al., 2024).

Forests also sustain human livelihoods and public health. Approximately 62 percent of rural households depend partially on fuelwood for domestic energy, while non-timber forest products provide subsistence and income particularly for women and marginalized communities (UNDP, 2024). Medicinal plants sourced from forest ecosystems contribute to traditional healthcare systems and emerging pharmaceutical industries (Sher et al., 2024). Globally, forests sequester around 2.6 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide annually, underscoring their central role in climate mitigation (IPCC, 2023).

Urban evidence further highlights forests’ regulatory functions. Studies in Lahore and Karachi show that mature trees reduce ambient temperatures by 2–5°C through evapotranspiration and shading (Shahid et al., 2023). A single mature broadleaf tree can deliver cooling effects comparable to multiple air-conditioning units operating for extended periods (Nowak et al., 2023). Trees also filter airborne pollutants, capturing particulate matter and absorbing harmful gases. In cities such as Lahore, where PM2.5 concentrations exceed WHO guidelines by several multiples, expanding greenbelts could reduce particulate pollution by 8–25 percent (Khokhar et al., 2024; Anjum et al., 2023).

Finally, forest conservation aligns with Islamic environmental ethics, which emphasize stewardship (khilafah) and continuous charity (sadaqah jariyah) through tree planting. Integrating ecological restoration with socioeconomic planning and ethical frameworks is therefore not merely an environmental imperative but a developmental necessity for Pakistan’s resilience and sustainability.

Urban Forestry, Indigenous Species, and Community-Centered Environmental Governance

Pakistan’s rapid urbanization, projected at approximately 3.2 percent annually, demands the systematic incorporation of green infrastructure into urban planning frameworks (PBS, 2024). Major metropolitan centers such as Lahore, Karachi, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, and Peshawar face acute shortages of accessible green space, frequently falling below the World Health Organization’s recommended minimum of 9 square meters per capita. This deficit exacerbates urban heat island effects, air pollution exposure, and declining public health outcomes. To address these vulnerabilities, provincial and municipal authorities must embed urban forestry within statutory master plans and zoning regulations. Priority measures include establishing urban forests and vertical gardens, mandating minimum green space allocations in housing developments, incentivizing green building certification, legally protecting heritage trees, and setting measurable tree cover targets (Ahmed et al., 2024).

Unlike pollution control technologies that rely on capital-intensive and energy-consuming systems such as electrostatic precipitators or fabric filters, urban forestry provides a cost-complementary and multifunctional mitigation strategy (Ali et al., 2024). Trees moderate temperatures, enhance aesthetic value, reduce stormwater runoff, and improve psychological well-being, while simultaneously filtering airborne pollutants.

Afforestation initiatives should prioritize indigenous, broad-canopied, evergreen or semi-evergreen species with high pollution tolerance and climate adaptability. Species such as Peepal (Ficus religiosa), Banyan (Ficus benghalensis), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Arjun (Terminalia arjuna), Sukh Chain (Pongamia pinnata), and Jaman (Syzygium cumini) demonstrate strong particulate capture capacity and require relatively low maintenance (Amin et al., 2024; Shah et al., 2023). Native species also support biodiversity and avoid the ecological risks associated with invasive exotics.

Sustainable urban forestry ultimately depends on civic engagement. Environmental education, community-based forest management models, and participatory conservation committees such as those piloted in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab illustrate that durable environmental governance requires active public stewardship. As local wisdom affirms, planting trees is an intergenerational investment in resilience and collective well-being.

Strategic Policy and Institutional Recommendations for Sustainable Forest Governance

Strengthening Pakistan’s forest governance framework requires coordinated institutional reform, technical upgrading, and regulatory modernization. A permanent Inter-Provincial Forest Commission should be constituted to harmonize forest policies across provinces, standardize forest inventory and data protocols, and align forestry governance with agriculture, water, wildlife, energy, and national climate adaptation strategies. Such vertical and horizontal coordination would reduce duplication and enhance policy coherence.

Provincial forestry training institutes must be modernized to deliver specialized curricula in biodiversity conservation, carbon forestry, climate-resilient silviculture, GIS-based monitoring, and ecosystem accounting to meet emerging environmental and reporting demands. Simultaneously, forest classification systems should transition from traditional use-based categories toward ecosystem-based typologies consistent with international standards, incorporating metrics such as carbon density, biodiversity significance, and watershed sensitivity.

Participatory governance mechanisms should be institutionalized through statutory district-level forest management committees involving local governments, forest-dependent communities, civil society organizations, and technical experts to enhance transparency and compliance. Legal consolidation is equally critical; fragmented legislation including the Forest Act 1927 and various provincial statutes should be rationalized into comprehensive, enforceable conservation laws with clear penalties and monitoring provisions.

At the federal level, coordination for international environmental commitments (UNFCCC, CBD, UNCCD, SDGs, and REDD+) must remain robust while respecting provincial jurisdiction. Provinces should allocate at least 1% of Annual Development Plans to forestry, establish research institutes, and maintain updated forest accounts. Circular economy measures, sustainable harvesting cycles, and mandatory 10:1 compensatory afforestation with geo-tagged verification should further reinforce ecological sustainability and long-term forest regeneration.

Conclusion

Forests in Pakistan are not peripheral ecological assets; they constitute foundational infrastructure for climate stability, water security, agricultural productivity, and public health. With forest cover remaining below six percent of total land area and demographic pressures intensifying, the country confronts a structural imbalance between resource demand and ecological regeneration. The evidence is unequivocal: deforestation amplifies flood risk, accelerates soil erosion, undermines hydropower efficiency, exacerbates urban heat stress, and erodes rural livelihoods. The economic costs, reflected in disaster losses, declining agricultural yields, sedimented reservoirs, and rising health expenditures, demonstrate that forest degradation is fundamentally a development crisis rather than a narrow environmental issue.

Yet the prospects for reversal remain tangible. Strengthened inter-provincial coordination, ecosystem-based classification, legal consolidation, enhanced budgetary allocations, and community-centered governance can reposition forestry within Pakistan’s macroeconomic and climate resilience strategy. Urban forestry, indigenous species restoration, circular economy practices, and science-based monitoring further offer cost-effective pathways toward ecological recovery. Aligning forest conservation with ethical stewardship, international commitments, and socioeconomic planning transforms afforestation from a symbolic exercise into a strategic national investment.

Sustainable forest governance, therefore, must be integrated into Pakistan’s long-term growth paradigm. Without restoring ecological capital, economic stability and human survival will remain precarious; with it, resilience and inclusive development become achievable.

References: Ahmed et al; Ali et al; Amin et al; Anjum et al; FAO; Gade; GoP; MoCC; IPCC; IUCN; Khan & Ahmad; Khan et al; Khattak et al; Khokhar et al; Majeed & Mumtaz; Nowak et al; Ozdemir; PCRWR; Pakistan Forest Survey; Sahih al-Bukhari; Sahih Muslim; Shah et al; Shahid et al; UNESCO. WAPDA; World Bank.

Please note that the views expressed in this article are of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of any organization.

The writers are affiliated with the Institute of Agricultural & Resource Economics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan and can be reached at amjed.iqbal@uaf.edu.pk

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