Integrated Solutions for Replenishing Sindh’s Groundwater

Globally, arid and semi-arid agricultural regions, from Punjab in South Asia to California in the United States, are grappling with the depletion of underground aquifers, but the challenge in Sindh stands out as particularly severe. The province has become heavily dependent on groundwater extraction, with an estimated 1.2 million tubewells in operation, and the number continues to rise by tens of thousands each year (Sindh Irrigation & Drainage Authority [SIDA], 2023). This unregulated expansion of tubewells has placed unsustainable pressure on already fragile aquifers.

According to the Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR), the groundwater table in critical agricultural districts such as Mirpurkhas, Hyderabad, and Sanghar is declining at an alarming rate of 1.5 to 3 meters annually (PCRWR, 2023). This rapid depletion poses a direct threat to the province’s agricultural sustainability, food security, and rural livelihoods.

However, the crisis is not limited to groundwater quantity alone; quality has deteriorated just as severely. Excessive pumping has disturbed the natural equilibrium of aquifers, mobilizing salt and other pollutants. Recent assessments reveal that more than 75% of Sindh’s groundwater is now classified as highly saline and unsuitable for most crops. Only about 25% remains within safe irrigation limits, defined as total dissolved solids below 1,000 mg/l (PCRWR, 2023). Farmers increasingly face declining crop yields and soil degradation as they struggle to irrigate with brackish water.

The situation is especially dire in the coastal districts of Thatta and Badin. Here, seawater intrusion, accelerated by both over-extraction and reduced freshwater flows in the Indus, has pushed brackish water as far as 70 kilometers inland. Combined with the natural salinity of the lower Indus Basin, this intrusion has further limited the availability of fresh groundwater. Left unchecked, these trends risk undermining the agricultural backbone of Sindh, with devastating social and economic consequences for its rural communities.

Drivers and Socio-Economic Impacts

The underlying driver of Sindh’s groundwater crisis is the widening gap between irrigation water demand and the supply available from the Indus Basin canal system. Over time, multiple factors have compounded this problem. Heavy siltation reduces storage and conveyance capacity, while aging infrastructure and operational inefficiencies further constrain water delivery. Added to this are transboundary water dynamics, which have introduced uncertainty into surface water availability (World Bank, 2023). As canal water supplies become increasingly unreliable, farmers have been left with little choice but to rely on groundwater as a supplemental or even primary source of irrigation. This dependence creates a vicious cycle: farmers drill deeper to secure water, but the resulting extraction requires higher energy inputs, drives up production costs, and accelerates the withdrawal of poorer quality, saline water. The use of saline water, in turn, degrades soil fertility, undermines crop productivity, and erodes long-term agricultural viability.

The socio-economic repercussions of this crisis are far-reaching. The financial burden of groundwater extraction has escalated rapidly, with the World Bank (2023) documenting a 300% increase in pumping costs over the past decade. This surge disproportionately affects smallholder farmers, many of whom lack the capital reserves to absorb higher costs and are forced into cycles of indebtedness. At the same time, declining groundwater quality has reduced the profitability of agriculture itself. Research from the International Water Management Institute (IWMI, 2022) shows that cotton yields in central Sindh have fallen by 15–20% over the past 15 years, largely because of soil salinity linked to poor-quality irrigation.

Beyond agriculture, the implications are even broader. The shrinking freshwater lens has triggered a parallel crisis in drinking water supplies. Rural and peri-urban households face increasing exposure to unsafe water, fueling public health challenges such as water-borne diseases, malnutrition, and declining labor productivity—thereby deepening poverty and vulnerability in Sindh’s rural economy.

A Pathway to Resilience: Integrated Solutions

Tackling Sindh’s groundwater depletion requires more than piecemeal interventions; it demands a fundamental paradigm shift from unregulated extraction toward planned aquifer management, demand-side efficiency, and institutional reform. Successful experiences from other water-stressed regions offer valuable insights. Gujarat’s large-scale community-led rainwater harvesting initiatives, which restored groundwater levels across tens of thousands of villages, demonstrate the power of collective action in aquifer recharge (Shah, 2023). Likewise, Israel’s integration of drip irrigation with the reuse of treated wastewater showcases how innovation and regulation can work together to maximize agricultural water productivity and reduce dependence on freshwater.

For Sindh, an integrated and multi-pronged strategy must be prioritized. First, strategic Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) offers a viable solution. The province loses vast volumes of monsoon floodwater to the Arabian Sea each year. By constructing recharge dams, spreading basins, and injection wells in identified permeable zones, these flows could be harnessed to replenish aquifers instead of being wasted. Second, regulatory governance is urgently required. A transparent tubewell licensing and zoning system, as envisioned in the National Water Policy (GoP, 2018), must be enforced to restrict new abstractions in critically over-exploited and saline areas. Without regulation, the current trajectory of unchecked drilling will accelerate aquifer decline and further marginalize smallholders who cannot afford deeper wells.

Third, scaling up high-efficiency irrigation systems (HEIS) is essential. Drip and sprinkler systems, supported through targeted subsidies and farmer training, can cut water application by 30–60% while improving yields compared to wasteful flood irrigation (FAO, 2021). Such systems not only conserve water but also reduce the energy burden of pumping groundwater. Finally, the modernization of canal systems can significantly alleviate groundwater dependency. By lining distributaries and watercourses to minimize seepage, and adopting digital allocation mechanisms for equitable distribution, surface water deliveries could become more reliable and efficient.

Ultimately, building resilience in Sindh requires integrating technical solutions with community participation and robust institutions. Without such coordinated action, aquifer depletion will continue to erode the province’s agricultural base, compromise food security, and intensify rural poverty. With it, however, Sindh can chart a sustainable path that balances agricultural productivity with long-term water security.

Conclusion

Groundwater depletion in Sindh has emerged as one of the most urgent threats to agricultural sustainability, food security, and rural livelihoods. The province’s heavy reliance on tubewell irrigation, compounded by the declining reliability of canal water, has pushed farmers into a cycle of deeper drilling, rising costs, and deteriorating water quality. This pattern has not only reduced soil fertility and crop productivity but has also undermined farmer incomes, worsened indebtedness, and exposed rural households to a parallel drinking water crisis. The socio-economic impacts are particularly severe for smallholders, who lack the financial capacity to adapt to higher pumping costs or invest in water-saving technologies.

Yet, as this study highlights, pathways to resilience are within reach. Lessons from international models show that collective action, technological innovation, and regulatory frameworks can reverse the trend of aquifer depletion. For Sindh, the strategic adoption of managed aquifer recharge, high-efficiency irrigation, regulatory governance of tubewells, and modernization of surface water systems together provide a holistic framework for sustainable water management. What is required now is the political will, institutional capacity, and community participation to implement these solutions effectively. Without decisive action, the province risks long-term ecological decline and worsening rural poverty; with it, Sindh can secure its agricultural future.

References: FAO; GoP; IWMI; PCRWR; Shah; SIDA; World Bank

Please note that the views expressed in this article are of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of any organization.

The writer is affiliated with the Department of Agricultural Economics, Faculty of Agricultural Social Sciences, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Pakistan  and can be reached at veesarattaullah@gmail.com

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